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Egypt history and timeline

History of Ancient Egypt


Ancient Egypt is one of the world's most captivating and mystifying civilizations, famed for incredible monuments such as the Giza Pyramids and the Sphinx. Ancient Egypt continues to capture our imaginations thanks to a unique and fascinating culture, with an eclectic pantheon of gods, an intricate hieroglyphic writing system, and infamous rituals involving the burial of the dead.

The history of Ancient Egyptian civilization stretches for thousands of years, charting the development of one of the world's oldest cultures. There are several distinct periods in Egypt's history, each ruled by various groups of pharaohs called “dynasties”.

Below, we'll delve into each period of Ancient Egypt's illustrious history as we tell the story of this incredible civilization.

Pre-dynastic Egypt: 5000 to 3150 BC

Little is known about the earliest period of Egypt's history when people first began to settle in the Nile river valley. These peoples began as Neolithic hunter-gatherers but gradually moved towards farming.

Villages began to appear as settlers built more and more stone buildings, settling down with their fields and flocks of pastoral animals. These farmers worked out how to use irrigation to grow their crops, exploiting the Nile to feed themselves. Pottery began to appear, and Egypt's earliest burial practices started to emerge.

Towards the end of the Pre-dynastic period, two rival kingdoms coalesced at different ends of the Nile valley in around 3400 BC. In the north was the Red Land, pitted against their southern rivals called the White Land. Eventually, one of these rulers gained the upper hand, although scholars are divided as to whether this king was called Menes or Narmer. They may even have been the same man.

Early Dynastic Period: 3150 to 2686 BC

Regardless, a ruler from the southern kingdom unified Egypt under one monarch, becoming the first Pharaoh and instigating Ancient Egypt's first ruling dynasty, thus beginning the Early Dynastic Period. This period encompassed Egypt's First and Second Dynasties.

To symbolize the union of the two kingdoms, the earliest pharaohs wore a red and white crown known as the Pschent. At this time, the cult of the pharaoh that would define Egyptian politics for centuries was established. To his subjects, the pharaoh was essentially a living god, blessed with the divine right to rule the land.

Agriculture continued to flourish, with the yearly flooding of the Nile becoming the lifeblood of the fledgling civilization. The capital of Egypt during this era was located at Memphis, close to modern-day Cairo. Scribes began to record the history of the early pharaohs, and hieroglyphics continued to develop.

Old Kingdom: 2686 to 2181 BC

After the end of the Second Dynasty, a ruler named Djoser took the title of Pharaoh, establishing the Third Dynasty and beginning the Old Kingdom period. During the Old Kingdom, Egypt's most famous monuments were constructed. The first incarnation of the pyramids was the Step-Pyramid, which was built as Djoser's tomb at Saqqara, just outside of Memphis.

Later rulers of Old Kingdom Egypt each sought to out-do their predecessors with bigger and grander tombs. The ultimate burial tomb was built in around 2560 BC; the Great Pyramid at Giza. This mighty monument was crafted for the Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty. The Great Pyramid was classed as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and is the only wonder that still survives today.

The Old Kingdom was one of Egypt's most prosperous periods. Culture and writing flourished, the pharaohs ruled without challenge, and external conquerors were kept at bay. Egypt was divided into local regions, known as nomes, that were ruled by the pharaoh but organized by appointed governors.

However, as the Old Kingdom drew to a close, the coffers began to run dry thanks to the lavish building projects commissioned by the pharaohs. Regional governors sought to capitalize on the fading power of the pharaohs, while the priesthood also grew in influence.

First Intermediate Period: 2181 to 2055 BC

The First Intermediate Period was a time of chaos in Egypt, as disease and famine wracked the land and the Old Kingdom disintegrated. Civil war broke out as regional governors undermined the pharaoh's waning power. To make matters worse, Bedouin tribes from North Africa raided Egypt's lands, while many of the impressive tombs built by the Old Kingdom Pharaohs were looted.

Eventually, Egypt split into two halves once more, each ruled by its own dynasties. The Ninth and Tenth dynasties ruled northern Egypt, while the Eleventh Dynasty presided over southern Egypt from their capital at Thebes.

The two kingdoms clashed, each seeking to reunite Egypt. The victor was Mentuhotep II, a noble from Thebes who defeated his rivals in 2055 BC and reformed Egypt under a single pharaoh, initiating the Middle Kingdom period.

Middle Kingdom: 2055 to 1786 BC

Mentuhotep II set about rebuilding and reorganizing Egypt, appointing a chief civil administrator known as a vizier. Mentuhotep and his Eleventh Dynasty also began expanding Egypt's military conquests, invading Nubia in the south and even pushing into the Levant.

The Twelfth Dynasty picked up where Mentuhotep's line left off, beginning with the reign of Amenemhat I, a former vizier. Nubia was retaken, and under subsequent Twelfth Dynasty rulers, Egypt experienced another period of growth. Food production skyrocketed, and more mines and quarries were established. The Middle Kingdom produced some of Egypt's best sculptures, indicating a flourishing of the arts.

Middle Kingdom pharaohs also began to protect their tombs from grave robbers, using spells and other enchantments. But after Amenemhat III died, Egypt began to decline under his successors, exacerbated by the Nile refusing to flood.

Second Intermediate Period: 1786 to 1567 BC

After the Twelfth Dynasty collapsed in around 1650 BC, another era of chaos descended upon Egypt. The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties were rivals who fractured Egypt into warring regions. This unrest left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion, and a people known as the Hyksos infiltrated the lands near the Nile delta.

The Hyksos, likely a society that originated in neighboring Levant, became the first foreign rulers of Egypt and established the Fifteenth Dynasty. At the same time, native Egyptian rulers held control of other parts of the country, such as the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties that controlled Thebes and southern Egypt.

Tensions grew, and eventually the Hyksos clashed with the Seventeenth Dynasty Thebans. A series of wars launched by various Seventeenth Dynasty pharaohs weakened the Hyksos, and the interlopers were finally expelled in about 1570 BC by Ahmose I, who reunited Egypt and established the Eighteenth Dynasty.

New Kingdom: 1567 to 1085 BC

Ahmose I's reunification of Egypt began the dawn of the New Kingdom era. During this period, Egyptian military power was at its zenith, controlling an empire from Nubia in the south to parts of Syria in the Middle East.

Several famous pharaohs ruled during the Eighteenth Dynasty, like Queen Hatshepsut and her son Thutmose III, known as the “Napoleon of Egypt” due to his successful military campaigns. The Eighteenth Dynasty also presided over the construction of the Temple of Karnak at Thebes, one of Egypt's most famous monuments.

The Nineteenth Dynasty, which peaked during the rule of Ramesses II, saw Egypt's territory increase through military campaigns. Ramesses II created a new royal burial complex called the Valley of the Kings, which became the largest necropolis in Egypt.

The Twentieth Dynasty ruled Egypt during the infamous Bronze Age Collapse in the 12th Century BC when a chain of devastating events toppled several major civilizations across the Ancient world. Some of these disasters were caused by a mysterious group called the Sea People, although Pharaoh Ramesses III defeated these unknown invaders.

However, the collapse continued after Ramesses III died, and droughts, famines, and a power struggle between his successors caused the New Kingdom to fall.

Third Intermediate Period: 1085 to 664 BC

Another period of internal strife struck Egypt after the end of the Twentieth Dynasty. The power of the pharaohs ebbed, with the Twenty-first Dynasty mainly confined to ruling Lower Egypt. The powerful priesthoods in the city of Thebes essentially took over the southern area of Egypt.

Egypt was split once again, this time between the rival Twenty-second and Twenty-third dynasties. Not much is known about these ruling families, but this period saw the Kushites, a Nubian people, begin to exert influence over Egypt. In about 732 BC, the Kushite ruler, Piye, invaded northern Egypt and took control of the country, establishing himself as the first pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. The Nubian pharaohs ruled Egypt for a century.

However, another foreign interloper had plans for Egypt; the Assyrians. One of Mesopotamia's most brutal and warlike people, the Assyrians invaded Egypt several times throughout the 7th Century BC. On several occasions, major cities such as Memphis and Thebes were sacked. Eventually, the Assyrians took total control and appointed a line of puppet pharaohs – the Twenty-sixth Dynasty.

Late Period: 664 to 332 BC

The first of these pharaohs, Psamtik I, bargained with the Assyrians for Egypt's independence. Psamtik and his successors restored Egypt's prestige and made an effort to maintain diplomatic relations with their neighbors.

Unfortunately, this dynasty would be the last native Egyptian line to control the country. In 525 BC, the Achaemenid Persian king Cambyses II invaded Egypt, subduing the native government and taking complete control. Egypt became a subservient satrapy (province) of the Persian Empire. Successive Persian kings held the title of Pharaoh as rulers of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty, such as Darius the Great and his son Xerxes.

While Darius realized Egypt's importance and invested heavily into the province, building great temples and the first iteration of the Suez Canal, Xerxes did not follow his father's example. When Egypt was one of the provinces to revolt during his reign, Xerxes' retribution was brutal and swift.

More revolts plagued Achaemenid Egypt throughout the rule of later Persian kings. Several rebellious pharaohs regained power as native rulers during the Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth Dynasties, which was ruled by Egypt's last native pharaoh – Nectanebo II, who lost power in 343 BC.

But just a decade later, the balance of power in the Ancient world would shift dramatically, bringing more huge changes for Egypt.

Hellenistic and Ptolemaic Egypt: 332 to 30 BC

In 334 BC, a young Macedonian king named Alexander the Great set out to topple the Achaemenid Persian empire. In just two years, the brilliant general had reached Egypt and styled himself as a liberator. The Egyptians welcomed the change of ruler, casting aside the Persian yoke and submitting to Alexander.

To celebrate his conquest, the city of Alexandria was founded as Egypt's capital, and Alexander was crowned Pharaoh at Memphis. The young general also visited one of Egypt's main religious sites, where the oracle decreed him to be the son of Amun, one of Egypt's most important gods.

Despite this, Alexander soon departed Egypt and continued his campaigns, destroying the Persians and even reaching India. But in 323 BC, Alexander succumbed to illness, leaving his newly-forged empire searching for a leader.

Alexander's legitimate son was too young to rule, and Alexander's main generals began to carve up the empire and claim their own territories. Egypt fell under the charge of Ptolemy. The former allies quickly began to fight, and the Wars of the Diadochi erupted. By 305 BC, Ptolemy had strengthened his hold on Egypt and defeated assaults by his rivals.

Ptolemy took the throne, becoming Pharaoh and establishing the Ptolemaic dynasty. For the next three centuries, Ptolemy's successors ruled Egypt. Traditional Egyptian culture merged with Hellenistic ideas, and Egypt experienced a period of renewed growth. Ptolemy began construction on a Great Library at Alexandria, as well as the famous Lighthouse – one of the lost Seven Wonders of the Ancient world.

But in 30 BC, one of Egypt's most famous rulers would witness another changing of the guard as the Roman empire began to expand.

The End of Ancient Egypt and the Roman Conquest

Throughout the rise of the Roman Republic, Ptolemaic Egypt increasingly fell under Roman influence, paying tributes and becoming one of Rome's most important sources of grain. In 51 BC, tensions were growing between Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII. During a political squabble, Cleopatra was exiled and began recruiting supporters to overthrow her brother.

Julius Caesar, pursuing his rival Pompey during Rome's own power struggle, landed in Alexandria, where Ptolemy XIII's advisors had captured and executed Pompey as a gesture of goodwill. Furious, Caesar sided with Cleopatra, who had been smuggled back into the palace. After a siege by Ptolemy's supporters, Caesar's forces won.

When Caesar was assassinated in the Roman Senate in 44 BC, his general Mark Anthony fled to Egypt. In Rome, Caesar's nephew Octavian assumed control and sought to defeat Anthony, who had secured Cleopatra's support. At the naval battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian devastated the Egyptian fleet. A year later, Octavian absorbed Egypt as a Roman province.

Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and the last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt was gone. Under the control of Rome, Egypt continued as the Empire's breadbasket and an important province up until the schism of the empire between East and West. Egypt remained a part of the Eastern Empire (the Byzantines) until it was captured during the Muslim conquests in 641 AD.



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